Rabindranath Tagore
Rabindranath Tagoreα[›]β[›] (7 May 1861 – 7 August 1941),γ[›] sobriquet Gurudev,δ[›] was a Bengali polymathwho reshaped his region's literature and music. Author ofGitanjali and its "profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse",[1] he became the first non-European Nobel laureate by earning the 1913 Prize in Literature.[2] In translation his poetry was viewed as spiritual and mercurial; his seemingly mesmeric persona, floccose locks, and empyreal garb garnered him a prophet-like aura in the West. His "elegant prose and magical poetry" remain largely unknown outside Bengal.[3]
A Pirali Brahmin[4][5][6][7] from Kolkata, Tagore wrote poetry as an eight-year-old.[8] At age sixteen, he cheekily released his first substantial poems under the pseudonymBhānusiṃha ("Sun Lion"), which were seized upon by the region's literary grandees as long-lost classics.[9][10] He graduated to his first short stories and dramas—and the aegis of his birth name—by 1877. As a humanist, universalist internationalist, and strident anti-nationalist he denounced the Raj and advocated for independence from Britain. As an exponent of the Bengal Renaissance he advanced a vast canon that comprised paintings, sketches and doodles, hundreds of texts, and some two thousand songs; his legacy endures also in the institution he founded, Visva-Bharati University.
Tagore modernised Bengali art by spurning rigid classical forms and resisting linguistic strictures. His novels, stories, songs, dance-dramas, and essays spoke to topics political and personal. Gitanjali(Song Offerings), Gora (Fair-Faced), and Ghare-Baire (The Home and the World) are his best-known works, and his verse, short stories, and novels were acclaimed—or panned—for their lyricism, colloquialism, naturalism, and unnatural contemplation. He penned two national anthems: the Republic of India's Jana Gana Mana and Bangladesh's Amar Shonar Bangla.
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Early life (1861–1878)
The youngest of thirteen surviving children, Tagore was born in the Jorasanko mansion in Calcutta toparents Debendranath Tagore (1817–1905) and Sarada Devi (1830–1875).ε[›][11] Tagore familypatriarchs were the Brahmo founders of the Adi Dharm faith. The fabulously loyalist "Prince"Dwarkanath Tagore, with his European estate managers and his serial visits with Victoria and other occidental royals, was his paternal grandfather; Dwarkanath's ancestors hailed from the village of Pithabhog in modern-day Bangladesh.[12] Debendranath had formulated the Brahmoist philosophies espoused by his friend Ram Mohan Roy, and became focal in Brahmo society after Roy's death.[13][14]
The last two days a storm has been raging, similar to the description in my song—Jhauro jhauro borishe baridhara [... amidst it] a hapless, homeless man drenched from top to toe standing on the roof of his steamer [...] the last two days I have been singing this song over and over [...] as a result the pelting sound of the intense rain, the wail of the wind, the sound of the heaving Gorai [R]iver, have assumed a fresh life and found a new language and I have felt like a major actor in this new musical drama unfolding before me.
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"Rabi" was raised mostly by servants; his mother had died in his early childhood and his father travelled widely.[16] His home hosted the publication of literary magazines; theatre and recitals of both Bengali and Western classical music featured there regularly, as the Jorasanko Tagores were the center of a large and art-loving social group. Tagore's oldest brotherDwijendranath was a respected philosopher and poet. Another brother,Satyendranath, was the first Indian appointed to the elite and formerly all-European Indian Civil Service. Yet another brother, Jyotirindranath, was a musician, composer, and playwright.[17] His sister Swarnakumari became a novelist. Jyotirindranath's wife Kadambari, slightly older than Tagore, was a dear friend and powerful influence. Her abrupt suicide in 1884 left him for years profoundly distraught.
Tagore largely avoided classroom schooling and preferred to roam the manor or nearby Bolpur and Panihati, idylls which the family visited.[18][19] His brother Hemendranath tutored and physically conditioned him—by having him swim the Ganges or yomp penitentially through hills, by gymnastics, and by being knocked about in judo and wrestling bouts. He learned drawing, anatomy, geography and history, literature, mathematics, Sanskrit, and English—his least favorite subject.[20] Tagore loathed formal education—his scholarly travails at the local Presidency College spanned a single day. Years later he held that proper teaching does not explain things; proper teaching stokes curiosity:[21]
His upanayan initiation at age eleven augured a pivotal trip; in February 1873 he decamped with his father for a months-long tour of the outer Raj. They visited his father's Santiniketan estate and rested inAmritsar en route to the Himalayan Dhauladhars. Their destination was the remote hill station atDalhousie. Along the way Tagore read biographies; his stridently learned father tutored him in history, astronomy, other modern sciences, and Sanskrit declensions. He read biographies of Benjamin Franklin and others; they shared Edward Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire; and together they examined the poetry of Kālidāsa.[22] In mid-April they reached the station, and at 2,300 metres (7,546 ft) they settled into a house atop Bakrota Hill. Tagore was arrested by the region's deep green gorges, its alpine forests, and its mossy streams and waterfalls.[23] Through the months a frigid regime attended him: daily twilights spent bathing in icy dawn water.[24][25]
He survived them, returned to Jorosanko, and wrote: he completed a set of major works by 1877, one a jokingly long poem in the Maithili style of Vidyapati. Published pseudonymously, the relevant experts accepted them as the lost works of Bhānusiṃha, a newly discoveredζ[›] 17th-centuryVaiṣṇava poet.[26] He debuted the short-story genre in Bengali with "Bhikharini" ("The Beggar Woman"),[27][28] and his Sandhya Sangit (1882) includes the famous poem "Nirjharer Swapnabhanga" ("The Rousing of the Waterfall"). Servants subjected him to an almost ludic regimentation in a phase he later dryly reviled as the "servocracy".[29] His head was serially water-dunked—to quiet him.[30] He refused food to irk servants; he was confined to chalk circles in puerile parody of Sita's forest trial in the Ramayana; and he was regaled with the horrifically heroic and vituperative exploits of Bengal's outlaw-dacoits.[31] Because the Jorasanko manor was in an area of north Calcutta rife with poverty and prostitution,[32] he was forbidden to leave it for any purpose other than traveling to school. In reaction he became infatuated with the world outside and nature. Of his 1873 visit to Santiniketan he wrote:
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What I could not see did not take me long to get over—what I did see was quite enough. There was no servant rule, and the only ring which encircled me was the blue of the horizon, drawn around these [sylvan] solitudes by their presiding goddess. Within this I was free to move about as I chose.[33]
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Works
Known mostly for his poetry, Tagore wrote novels, essays, short stories, travelogues, dramas, and thousands of songs. Of Tagore's prose, his short stories are perhaps most highly regarded; he is indeed credited with originating the Bengali-language version of the genre. His works are frequently noted for their rhythmic, optimistic, and lyrical nature. Such stories mostly borrow from deceptively simple subject matter: commoners. Tagore's non-fiction grappled chthonic history, linguistics, and uttermost spirituality. He wrote autobiographies. His travelogues, essays, and lectures were compiled into several volumes, includingEurope Jatrir Patro (Letters from Europe) and Manusher Dhormo (The Religion of Man). His brief chat with Einstein, "Note on the Nature of Reality", is included as an appendix to the latter. On the occasion of Tagore's 150th birthday an anthology (titled Kalanukromik Rabindra Rachanabali) of the total body of his works is currently being published in Bengali in chronological order. This includes all versions of each work and fills about eighty volumes.[83]
Music and art
Tagore composed 2,230 songs and was a prolific painter. His songs compose rabindrasangit ("Tagore Song"), which merges fluidly into his literature, most of which—poems or parts of novels, stories, or plays alike—were lyricised. Influenced by the thumri style of Hindustani music, they ran the entire gamut of human emotion, ranging from his early dirge-like Brahmo devotional hymns to quasi-erotic compositions.[84] They emulated the tonal color of classical ragas to varying extents. Some songs mimicked a given raga's melody and rhythm faithfully; others newly blended elements of differentragas.[85] Yet about nine-tenths of his work was not bhanga gaan, the body of tunes revamped with "fresh value" from select Western, Hindustani, Bengali folk and other regional flavours "external" to Tagore's own ancestral bequest.[15] In gauging the emotive force and range of ragas, he was rapt:
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[...] the pathos of the purabi raga reminded Tagore of the evening tears of a lonely widow, while kanara was the confused realization of a nocturnal wanderer who had lost his way. In bhupali he seemed to hear a voice in the wind saying 'stop and come hither'.Paraj conveyed to him the deep slumber that overtook one at night’s end.[15]
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Tagore influenced sitar maestro Vilayat Khan and sarodiyas Buddhadev Dasgupta and Amjad Ali Khan.[85] His songs are immensely popular and undergird the Bengali ethos to an extent perhaps rivaling Shakespeare's impact on the English-speaking world. It is said that his songs are the outcome of five centuries of Bengali literary churning and communal yearning. Dhan Gopal Mukerji has said that these songs transcend the mundane to the aesthetic and express all ranges and categories of human emotion. The poet gave voice to all—big or small, rich or poor. The poor Ganges boatman and the rich landlord air their emotions in them. They birthed a distinctive school of music whose practitioners can be fiercely traditional: novel interpretations have drawn severe censure in both West Bengal and Bangladesh.
For Bengalis, the songs' appeal, stemming from the combination of emotive strength and beauty described as surpassing even Tagore's poetry, was such that the Modern Review observed that "[t]here is in Bengal no cultured home where Rabindranath's songs are not sung or at least attempted to be sung ... Even illiterate villagers sing his songs". Arthur Strangways of The Observer introduced non-Bengalis to rabindrasangit in The Music of Hindostan, calling it a "vehicle of a personality ... [that] go behind this or that system of music to that beauty of sound which all systems put out their hands to seize."[87]
In 1971, Amar Shonar Bangla became the national anthem of Bangladesh. It was written—ironically—to protest the 1905 Partition of Bengal along communal lines: lopping Muslim-majority East Bengal from Hindu-dominated West Bengal was to avert the region's pyrolatrous demise. Tagore saw the partition as a ploy to upend the independence movement, and he aimed to rekindle Bengali unity and tar communalism. Jana Gana Mana was written in shadhu-bhasha, a Sanskritised register of Bengali, and is the first of five stanzas of a Brahmo hymn that Tagore composed. It was first sung in 1911 at a Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress and was adopted in 1950 by the Constituent Assembly of the Republic of India as its national anthem.
At sixty, Tagore took up drawing and painting; successful exhibitions of his many works—which made a debut appearance in Paris upon encouragement by artists he met in the south of France[88]—were held throughout Europe. He was likely red-green color blind. The result: his hale paintings betrayed fey colour schemes and off-beat aesthetics. Tagore limned scrimshaw from northern New Ireland, Haidacarvings from British Columbia, and woodcuts by Max Pechstein.[82] His artist's eye for his handwriting were revealed in the simple artistic and rhythmic leitmotifs embellishing the scribbles, cross-outs, and word layouts of his manuscripts. Certain of Tagore's song lyrics corresponded with particular paintings in a sort of sensuous synaesthesia.[15]
Theatre
At sixteen, Tagore led his brother Jyotirindranath's adaptation ofMolière's Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme.[89] At twenty he wrote his first drama-opera: Valmiki Pratibha (The Genius of Valmiki). In it the glory-bound pandit Valmiki repudiates sin, is blessed by Saraswati, and compiles his summative fable: the Rāmāyana.[90] Through it Tagore vigorously explores a wide range of dramatic styles and emotions, including usage of revamped kirtans and adaptation of traditional English and Irish folk melodies as drinking songs.[91]Another play, Dak Ghar (The Post Office), describes the child Amal defying his stuffy and puerile confines by ultimately "fall[ing] asleep", hinting his physical death. A story with borderless appeal—gleaning rave reviews in Europe—Dak Ghar dealt with death as, in Tagore's words, "spiritual freedom" from "the world of hoarded wealth and certified creeds".[92][93] In the Nazi-besieged Warsaw Ghetto, Polish doctor-educatorJanusz Korczak had orphans in his care stage The Post Office in July 1942.[94] In The King of Children, biographer Betty Jean Lifton suspected that Korczak, agonising over whether one should determine when and how to die, was easing the children into accepting death.[95][96][97] In mid-October, their Nazi caretakers sent them to Treblinka.[98]
[I]n days long gone by [...] I can see [...] the King's postman coming down the hillside alone, a lantern in his left hand and on his back a bag of letters climbing down for ever so long, for days and nights, and where at the foot of the mountain the waterfall becomes a stream he takes to the footpath on the bank and walks on through the rye; then comes the sugarcane field and he disappears into the narrow lane cutting through the tall stems of sugarcanes; then he reaches the open meadow where the cricket chirps and where there is not a single man to be seen, only the snipe wagging their tails and poking at the mud with their bills. I can feel him coming nearer and nearer and my heart becomes glad.
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[...] but the meaning is less intellectual, more emotional and simple. The deliverance sought and won by the dying child is the same deliverance which rose before his imagination, [...] when once in the early dawn he heard, amid the noise of a crowd returning from some festival, this line out of an old village song, "Ferryman, take me to the other shore of the river." It may come at any moment of life, though the child discovers it in death, for it always comes at the moment when the "I", seeking no longer for gains that cannot be "assimilated with its spirit", is able to say, "All my work is thine" [...].[100]
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His other works fuse lyrical flow and emotional rhythm into a tight focus on a core idea, a break from prior Bengali drama. Tagore sought "the play of feeling and not of action". In 1890 he released what is regarded as his finest drama: Visarjan (Sacrifice).[90] It is a thanatological and thespianised rendition of Rajarshi, an earlier novella of his. "A forthright denunciation of a meaningless [and] cruel superstitious rite[s]",[101] the Bengali originals feature intricate subplots and prolonged monologues giving play to historical events in seventeenth-century Udaipur. The Maharaja of Tripura, himself of spiritual bent, is pitted against the primeval ukases and sanguinary piety staged by the head priest Raghupati. His latter dramas probed themes more philosophical and allegorical in nature; these included Dak Ghar. Another is Tagore's Chandalika (Untouchable Girl), which was modeled on an ancient Buddhist legend describing how Ananda, the Gautama Buddha's disciple, asks water of a tribal girl.[102]
Raktakarabi ("Red" or "Blood Oleanders") features a curtained and kingly kleptocrat who regally bilks the anthropoid simulacra of Yakshapuri—benumbed by alcohol and numbered in nomenclature—via coerced gold mining. The naive maiden-heroine Nandini dotingly rallies her subject-compatriots to ultimately baffle the avarice of the sardar-nomenklatura—with the roused raja's own belated help. Skirting the "good-vs-evil" trope, the work pits a vital and joyous lèse majesté against a necrotic, monotonous fealty of a vacuous varletry, a microcosmic and allegorical cockfight akin to Animal Farm or Gulliver's Travels.[103] As ever, the lithe and sublime Bengali original, prized at home, long failed to spawn a "free and comprehensible" translation, and its archaic and sonorous didacticism earned few plaudits abroad.[2] Chitrangada, Chandalika, and Shyama are other key plays that have dance-drama adaptations: Rabindra Nritya Natya.
Novels
Tagore wrote eight novels and four novellas, among them Chaturanga,Shesher Kobita, Char Odhay, and Noukadubi. Ghare Baire (The Home and the World)—through the lens of the idealistic zamindar protagonist Nikhil—repudiates the ravening frog-march of nativism, terrorism, and religious querulousness among less reputable segments of the Swadeshi movement. A frank expression of Tagore's conflicted sentiments, it calved off a 1914 bout of depression. The novel ends in grody Hindu-Muslim interplay and Nikhil's likely mortal capital wounding.[104]
Gora, championed by many Bengali critics as his finest tale, raises controversies regarding connate identity and its ultimate fungibility. As with Ghare Baire matters of self-identity (jāti), personal freedom, and religion are lividly vivisected and contextualised solely by family and romance.[105] In it an Irish boy orphaned in the Sepoy Mutiny is raised by Hindus as the titular "whitey". Ignorant of his foreign provenance he fixedly castigates religious backsliders out of love for the autochthons and solidarity with them against his hegemon-compatriots. The cultural castaway falls for a Brahmo girl, compelling his worried foster father to reveal his distant origins and admonish his nativist zeal. As a "true dialectic" evincing "arguments for and against strict traditionalism", it tackles the colonial conundrum by "portray[ing] the value of all positions within a particular frame [...] not only syncretism, not only liberal orthodoxy, but the extremest reactionary traditionalism he defends by an appeal to what humans share." Among these Tagore highlights "identity [...] conceived of as dharma."[106]
In Jogajog (Relationships), the heroine Kumudini—bound by the ideals of Śiva-Sati, exemplified byDākshāyani—is torn between her pity for the sinking fortunes of her progressive and compassionate elder brother and his foil: her rakishly rebarbative roue of a husband. Tagore flaunts his feminist leanings; pathos depicts the plight and ultimate demise of women trapped by pregnancy, duty, and family honour; he simultaneously trucks with the pyrrhic putrescence of Bengal's preterite landed gentry.[107] The story revolves around the underlying rivalry between two families—the Chatterjees, aristocrats now on the decline (Biprodas) and the Ghosals (Madhusudan), representing new money and new arrogance. Kumudini, Biprodas' sister, is caught between the two as she is married off to Madhusudan. She had risen in an observant and sheltered traditional home, as had all her female relations.
Others were uplifting: Shesher Kobita—translated twice as Last Poem and Farewell Song—is his most lyrical novel, with poems and rhythmic passages written by a poet protagonist. It contains elements of satire and postmodernism; stock characters gleefully attack the reputation of an old, outmoded, oppressively renowned poet who, incidentally, goes by the suitably dyspeptic nameRabindranath Tagore. Though his novels remain among the least-appreciated of his works, they have been given renewed attention via film adaptations by Ray and others: Chokher Bali and Ghare Baireare exemplary. In the first, Tagore fulminantly inscribes coeval Bengali society via its heroine: a rebellious widow who would live for herself alone. He pillories the custom of perpetual mourning on the part of widows, who were not allowed to remarry, who were consigned to seclusion and loneliness. It is of choleric melancholy, a stirring tale of deceit and sorrow arising from dissatisfaction and sorrow. Tagore wrote of it: "I have always regretted the ending".
The latter work illustrates Tagore's conflicted mind, between the ambiguous munificence of Western culture and line-item revolution against it. These moieties are portrayed in two of the main characters: Nikhil, who is rational and opposes violence; and Sandip, who as sumpter to his goals will not be stopped. These rivals are key in understanding the history of his region and its contemporary problems. There is much controversy over whether Tagore was representing Gandhi in Sandip. But many argue that Tagore would not even venture to personify Sandip as Gandhi because Tagore could—grudgingly—offer a sort of derogatory devotion to Gandhi's antiquarian ardor, and Gandhi was sententiously anti-violence while the libertine Sandip would employ violence—in any respect—to twin body and soul.
Stories
Tagore's three-volume Galpaguchchha comprises eighty-four stories that reflect upon the author's surroundings, on modern and fashionable ideas, and on mind puzzles.[27] Tagore associated his earliest stories, such as those of the "Sadhana" period, with an exuberance of vitality and spontaneity; these traits were cultivated by zamindar Tagore’s life Patisar, Shajadpur, Shelaidaha, and other villages.[27] Seeing the common and the poor, he examined their lives with a depth and feeling singular in Indian literature up to that point.[108] In "The Fruitseller from Kabul", Tagore speaks in first person as a town dweller and novelist imputing exotic perquisites to an Afghan seller. He channels the lucubrative lust of those mired in the blasé, nidorous, sudorific morass of subcontinental city life: for distant vistas. "There were autumn mornings, the time of year when kings of old went forth to conquest; and I, never stirring from my little corner in Calcutta, would let my mind wander over the whole world. At the very name of another country, my heart would go out to it [...] I would fall to weaving a network of dreams: the mountains, the glens, the forest [...]."[109]
The Golpoguchchho (Bunch of Stories) was written in Tagore'sSabuj Patra period, which spanned the years 1914–1917 and was named for another of his magazines.[27] These yarns are celebrated fare in Bengali fiction and provide much fodder for film and theatre. The Ray film Charulata echoed the controversial Tagore novella Nastanirh (The Broken Nest). In Atithi, which was made into another film, the little Brahmin boy Tarapada shares a boat ride with a village zamindar. The boy relates his flight from home and his subsequent wanderings, as was his wont. Taking pity, the elder adopts him; he fixes the boy to marry his own daughter. The night before his wedding, Tarapada runs off—again. Strir Patra (The Wife's Letter) is an early treatise in female emancipation.[110] Mrinal is wife to a Bengali middle class man: prissy, preening, patriarchal. Travelling alone she writes a letter, which comprehends the story. She details the pettiness of a life spent entreating his viraginous virility; she resiles married life; she apostrophises, Amio bachbo. Ei bachlum: "And I shall live. Here, I live."
Haimanti assails Hindu arranged marriage and foregrounds their often dismal domesticity, the hypocrisies plaguing the Indian middle classes, and how Haimanti, a young woman, due to her insufferable sensitivity and free spirit, foredid herself. In the last passage Tagore blasts the reification ofSita's self-immolation attempt; she had meant to appease her consort Rama's doubts of her chastity.Musalmani Didi eyes recrudescent Hindu-Muslim tensions and, in many ways, embodies the essence of Tagore's humanism. The somewhat auto-referential Darpaharan describes a fey young man who harbours literary ambitions. Though he loves his wife, he wishes to stifle her literary career, deeming it unfeminine. In youth Tagore likely agreed with him. Darpaharan depicts the final humbling of the man as he ultimately acknowledges his wife's talents. As do many other Tagore stories, Jibito o Mritoequips Bengalis with a ubiquitous epigram: Kadombini moriya proman korilo she more nai—"Kadombini died, thereby proving that she hadn't."
Poetry
Tagore's poetic style ranges from classical formalism to the comic, visionary, and ecstatic, yet proceeds from a lineage established by 15th- and 16th-century Vaishnava poets. His ken was the atavistic mysticism of the rishi-authors of the Upanishads à la Vyasa, the Bhakti-Sufi mystic Kabir, and Ramprasad Sen.[111] Tagore's most innovative and mature poetry embodies his exposure to Bengali rural folk music, which included mystic Baul ballads, and especially those of the bardLalon.[112][113] These, rediscovered and repopularised by Tagore, resemble 19th-century Kartābhajāhymns that emphasise inward divinity and rebellion against bourgeois bhadralok religious and social orthodoxy.[114][115] During his Shelaidaha years, his poems took on a lyrical voice of the moner manush, the Bāuls' "man within the heart" and Tagore's “life force of his deep recesses", or meditating upon the jeevan devata, the demiurge, the "living God within".[15] This figure connected with divinity through appeal to nature and the emotional interplay of human drama. Such tools saw use in hisBhānusiṃha poems chronicling the Radha-Krishna romance; they were revised repeatedly over the course of seventy years.[116][117]
The time that my journey takes is long and the way of it long.
I came out on the chariot of the first gleam of light, and pursued my voyage through the wildernesses of worlds leaving my track on many a star and planet.
It is the most distant course that comes nearest to thyself, and that training is the most intricate which leads to the utter simplicity of a tune.
The traveller has to knock at every alien door to come to his own, and one has to wander through all the outer worlds to reach the innermost shrine at the end.
My eyes strayed far and wide before I shut them and said 'Here art thou!'
The question and the cry 'Oh, where?' melt into tears of a thousand streams and deluge the world with the flood of the assurance 'I am!'
I came out on the chariot of the first gleam of light, and pursued my voyage through the wildernesses of worlds leaving my track on many a star and planet.
It is the most distant course that comes nearest to thyself, and that training is the most intricate which leads to the utter simplicity of a tune.
The traveller has to knock at every alien door to come to his own, and one has to wander through all the outer worlds to reach the innermost shrine at the end.
My eyes strayed far and wide before I shut them and said 'Here art thou!'
The question and the cry 'Oh, where?' melt into tears of a thousand streams and deluge the world with the flood of the assurance 'I am!'
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Tagore reacted to the halfhearted uptake of modernist and realist techniques in Bengali literature by writing matching experimental works in the 1930s.[119] These include Africa and Camalia, among the better known of his latter poems. He occasionally wrote poems using Shadhu Bhasha, a Sanskritised dialect of Bengali; he later adopted a more popular dialect known as Cholti Bhasha. Other works include Manasi, Sonar Tori (Golden Boat), Balaka (Wild Geese, a name redolent of migrating souls),[120] andPurobi. Sonar Tori's most famous poem, dealing with the fleeting endurance of life and achievement, goes by the same name; hauntingly it ends: Shunno nodir tire rohinu poŗi / Jaha chhilo loe gêlo shonar tori—"all I had achieved was carried off on the golden boat—only I was left behind." Gitanjali (গীতাঞ্জলি) is Tagore's best-known collection internationally, earning him his Nobel.[121]